高考英语议论文如何出彩？

文/季益广

议论文(argumentation)是围绕某一有争议的观点展开论说和争辩。作者在文章中列举事实，并站在自己的立场上解释事实，最后达到赢得读者同情、同意或接受自己观点的目的。

议论文一般都针对特定的读者，比如学生说服导师承认其观点的价值，下级说服上级采纳某一改革措施等等。因此，议论文不能仅以发表个人看法为目的，作者要考虑如何阐述自己的观点，才能说服读者改变其观点而支持自己的主张，改变其主意或行为，进而赞同某一政策或自己倡议的某一行动，最终将其争取到自己的立场上来。议论文包括政策演讲、报刊社评、政治或理论议题的文章以及各种建议等。

议论文常常充分利用三种写作手段：即描写、叙述以及特别重要的说明。因为论述和说明相互关系密切，实际上，论述文就是附带说服(convince)和劝导(persuade)目的的说明文。

论述文的形式可能各不相同，但有一些基本的、共同的文体特征。如果想写得出彩，最好要遵循一些基本的要求和条件：

1）有争议的(debatable)问题

一篇论述文要有一个明确的论点(point)，即作者对某一有争议的问题所持的态度。论述文所论争的问题应该是有争议的。一个事实，一个有充分事实依据的观点，或个人的好恶都不能作为论争的题目，因为它们都是无可置疑的。论述文的问题应当是可以从不同的角度展开讨论，因为持各种不同的看法，所以，人们需要列举事实表明各自的主张，通过不同的解释得出各种各样的结论。

2）作者的观点和态度

论述文作者要围绕论题明确自己的观点，通过文章的主题句(topic sentence)直接地、鲜明地阐明自己的主张。因此，主题句在论述文中至关重要，缺少观点鲜明的主题句，文章在很大程度上就失去了力度。

为了让读者清晰地了解作者的观点，主题句的措辞要直截了当、语气要肯定、理由要充足，以避免模棱两可、含糊不清的意思表达。关于态度，要记住，辩论不是吵架(quarrel)。论证的力量不是来自于谩骂(abuse)、讥讽(sarcasm)、夸大其词(exaggeration)、恶语相向(fierce attacks)甚至是人身攻击(personal attacks)。强有力的论据来自于确凿的(solid)证据、逻辑性的推理(logical reasoning)以及严丝合缝的分析。盛气凌人的(domineering)或充满仇恨的(hostile)语气可能使人们怀疑你的善意(good faith)，结果损害你论证的可信度(credibility)。与此相反，诚实友好的态度有助于赢得读者的信任。

千万注意论证时，既不要夸大也不要减损证据的可信度。写作时应尽量避免使用下面一些单词和短语: “perhaps”, “maybe”, “sometimes”, “most often”, “nearly always”, “I think”, “in my opinion”，这些单词和短语不可避免地削弱论证的力度。

3）充分的(sufficient)证据

明确了论述文的论点之后，作者必须列举充分、有力、确凿的事实支持这一观点，对同一事实作出不同的解释或从另一个角度来说明，并以此证明论点的正确性。

论述文通过列举事实和解释事实来说服和劝导读者，但这些事实必须确凿可靠，因为只有真实的，有权威性的证据材料才能使读者信服。比较有说服力的证据材料是指那些已发表的经过检验的实验成果、权威性的调查报告数据，新闻媒体的客观报道、权威人士和特定专家的意见等。而道听途说的传闻、个人的主观判断以及经验体会不能作为论证的论据。

4）合理的逻辑推理

合理的逻辑推理至关重要，因为作者在明确了论点之后，根据手头掌握的素材和获得的事实，可以采用不同的方式展开这一论点。因此，作者业已掌握的作为证据的事实和理由与将要得出的结论应当顺理成章地结合起来，首尾照应，成为一个有机的整体。推理过程中的任何逻辑混乱和不恰当的步骤将使读者对于作者论点阐述感到无所适从。

有两个有关逻辑推理写作的策略：

a) 归纳法(inductive reasoning)

归纳法是一种逻辑推理方式，作者用这种推理方式组织证据素材和事实，从逻辑上论证某一观点的正确性。换句话说，作者由事实开始，从事实推导得出一般的结论。首先作者列举事实，然后根据这些事实很自然地得出一个符合逻辑的，有较强说服力的结论。值得注意的是，在使用归纳法写作时，要掌握充分的事实根据，这样才能得出经得起考验的结论。缺少事实根据的结论根本站不住脚。同时，列举事实要有条理，使读者能够沿着作者的思路，很自然地接受最后的结论，并与作者在思想上产生共鸣。

b)演绎法 (deductive reasoning)

演绎法是与归纳法相对的另一种逻辑推理方式。演绎法依据一条一般的原理针对某一具体情况进行推导进而得出结论，换句话说，作者由一般的原理开始，得出具体的结论。论述文在使用演绎法构思和组织文章时，作者首先要引用一个读者能接受的原理或公论，然后以此为出发点，对照事实，进而推论出作者的结论。值得注意的是，引用的一般原理(statement)或公论(generalization)必须是真实的，这样，得出的结论才真实。像“所有的学生都喜欢学习”或“女人比男人更具想象力”这样的前提(premise)是不能得到公认的，因此也就不能用作作文大前提。

5)清晰的架构

议论文通常由三部分构成：

a) 介绍段落

开头就提出自己的观点，解释自己观点的具体内容，即确定要讨论的议题，先让读者有个大概的了解，为接下来的论证打好基础，并且解释这种讨论的重要性；

b) 主体段落

在正文中，要处处围绕自己提出的观点来摆事实、讲道理，提供所需要的证据，既要内容充实，又要尽量简洁而有侧重点。同时，注意证据的展示步骤和安排顺序应该是证据的重要性由弱到强，证据的熟悉度由强到弱，证据的接受或理解度由易到难。换句话说，在运用这些证据时，应该分清它们的主次关系，做到各层之间能逐步深入，步步推进。证据的安排顺序应由浅入深、由简单到复杂、由具体到抽象，这样可以给读者一个熟悉、认可的过程，符合事物的发展规律；

c) 结论段落

结尾时，应该总结全文，在正文议论分析的基础上，重申、强调自己观点的正确性，照应开头，使作文成为一个首尾照应的有机整体。

下面有一篇范文供参考，阅读时应当从中琢磨出一些门道来，请思考以下一些问题：

1）介绍段落的论点什么？

2）作者如何围绕题目所提出的观点来写？

3）正文部分每一段的主题句是什么？

4）结论部分，作者是如何归纳总结，得出自己所需要的论点？

最后重要的是，要把这些要领运用到自己的作文当中。

Why Should Students Read Literature?

Literature connects us with past and present humanity. Literary reading promotes the language development and thinking that is necessary for an educated, cultural society. It is our job as educators to put all students in touch with excellent literature, especially those books which have the power to change us in some way. A famous writer once said, “Books that transform me as I read, books that go on working in me afterwards when they have become part of me, often refresh and reinvigorate the language.” There are many valid reasons for using literature as the mainstay of a reading and writing program. All these serve to motivate and promote life-long interest in reading. Hare are some:

1） Literature allows meaning to dominate. Students read immediately for meaning and view reading as a thinking process. A story that makes sense is easy to talk about and remember. Reading literature helps students to form their own way of understanding and thinking.

2） Literature concentrates on the development of readers rather the development of skills. Students spend most of their time reading continuous text, which allows them to see themselves as readers right from the start. Research has shown that reading literature has a great influence in the making of students’ character, view of the world, way of living and choice of lifestyle.

3） Literature promotes positive self-concepts in students. Because students see themselves as readers of books from the first day of school, they develop positive attitudes about reading and themselves. Regardless of background, apparent deficiencies, and varying development levels, children begin to learn to read with the best of children’s books. That early success and confidence flows into other academic and social areas. By contrast, students who fail to learn to read in first grade can carry lifelong scars.

4） Literature promotes language development. Exposure to the variety of complex syntactical patterns, creative and figurative language, and imagery found in good literature seems to aid comprehension of language in general and to enhance vocabulary development. Since literary language is not generally found in primary readers, popular television programs, or general conversation, it is important that students be saturated with good books in the school environment. In fact, vocabulary and multiple meanings of words are best learned and applied through the context of books.

5） Literature promotes fluent reading. It has been interesting to observe beginning readers reading with fluency from the start. Since the children hear a predictable story as a whole first, and possibly more than once, they come to know phrasing, and they imitate it. Where predicting and sampling are encouraged, they are accustomed to filling in the words that make sense. They do not read word for word even when presented with new material. The transference of reading ability to other books is a highly important factor which gives the child confidence and the ability to read independently.

6）Literature deals with human emotions. Students relate easily to stories that deal with anger, sadness, jealousy, etc., and they have an opportunity to get in touch with their own emotions in an natural, nonthreatening manner. Students meet characters who have traits like themselves, which makes them feel like an accepted part of the human race. Folk tales and fairy tales teach much about individual longings, conflicts, and failings and can stimulate thoughtful discussion.

In summary, literature helps to create well-rounded human beings with insight and understanding of the passions, hopes and dreams common to all humanity. Literature, the ancient timeless reservoir of knowledge, teaches us to see things differently and broadens our horizons. It is as useful and relevant in our modern age as it has always been. Doesn’t it make sense to spend some time in the company of literature, our outstanding and remarkable treasure of knowledge?

参考文献

丁往道等. 英语写作手册[M]. 北京:外语教育与研究出版社. 1999.

本文作者 | 季益广

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